![]() Male Aplastodiscus perviridis guide females to the underground nests they have built to lay their eggs. The canebrake tree frogs (genus Aplastodiscus) emit pheromones during courtship. Xenopus laevis, Pelophylax spp, and Trachycephalus spp emit sounds underwater, and Physalaemus pustulosus inflates the vocal sac to attract its mate. Micrixalus saxicola performs feet-flagging behavior, i.e., displays a bright white vocal sac when vocalizing and emits a visual signal to females when deploying the foot. For example, Trachycephalus hadroceps emits 38,000 calls per night. Frogs’ mate attraction behaviors vary widely and can be elaborated differently. Histologically, the vocal sac is delimited by epithelium, connective tissue, and a muscle layer. In some species, the vocal sac has been coopted temporarily as a gestational organ to incubate eggs and larvae. Meanwhile, adult females emit sounds to alert males about threats or courtship during copulation. Most males vocalize once they reach sexual maturity they emit calls to attract mates and maintain territorial boundaries. In addition to vocalizations, male frogs may use visual signals or secretion of pheromones to attract females. In frogs, the reproductive mechanism initiates when males attract females by producing vocalizations, which are amplified by the vocal sac. Anurans have internal and external sexual reproduction, as well as different mate attraction mechanisms. ![]() Therefore, the oviposition site, oocyte characteristics, clutch-type, size of hatchlings, and parental care are associated with reproductive modes. The amphibians have developed a diverse range of reproductive modes, i.e., strategies related to reproductive behavior and oviposition. Mating systems and reproductive modes in frogs Therefore, we propose reproductive schemes that describe the importance of the different mating behavior until vital reproductive mechanisms lead to the success of their internal or external sexual reproduction. In particular, this review aims to integrate and describe each participating organ’s physiological, histological, and morphological functions in reproduction. Principally, reproduction varies in some frog species, from mating to internal or external fertilization. Therefore, it is essential to describe all known reproductive mechanisms. In contrast, others have implemented unusual mechanisms for embryo development, such as the utilization of structures such as the stomach, dorsal sac, or vocal sac as a gestational organ. Some species give birth to developed frogs, while others give birth to larval frogs. įollowing fertilization, embryo development and maintenance vary among species. Finally, the ovisac or uterus stores the oocytes for subsequent fertilization by the spermatozoa. These regions participate in the oocyte’s capture, secretion, and fertilization during its transport to the ovisac. The oviduct consists of three regions: infundibulum, ampulla, and isthmus. The oviduct is a tubular organ connected to the ovaries. ![]() The reproductive process begins in the ovaries with the formation of oogonia and oocytes. The ovaries’ fat bodies contribute to the formation of follicles, oocytes, hormones, and yolk. Meanwhile, the female frog’s reproductive system comprises oviducts and ovaries attached to fat bodies. In fact, spermatozoa morphology varies among frog species. The testicles consist of a seminiferous tubule network that produces spermatozoa. Fat bodies play an essential role in producing reproductive hormones. The main components of the male reproductive system are the testicles and seminiferous tubules, which are associated with fat bodies. ![]() There are also significant differences in the levels of development attended by the parents, ranging from larval to juvenile frogs. In this publication, we speak of internal fertilization that involves a diversity of incubation structures that can be dedicated or temporary. Amphibians have two sexual reproductive types: internal and external. Different animal groups developed divergent reproductive mechanisms. ![]()
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